• Gather all necessary materials.
• Set up lab stations: one station for each student group in an area of the classroom that will not be damaged if the area gets a little wet or dirty. If there is not space for separate lab stations, then students can conduct experiment at their seats.
• Make copies of the Porosity and Permeability Worksheet (one per group).
• If following the traditional procedures lab, use the tip of a pencil to poke a small hole in the bottom of one paper cup per group (holes should be roughly the same size for each group).

Note: This lab is written both as an inquiry-based project and a traditional procedures-led lab. Instructions for both methods are provided below.

1. Write the purpose of the activity on the board:

• Purpose: To study the characteristics of different kinds of soil by measuring pore space and permeability.

2. Review groundwater flow, aquifers, porosity and permeability with students (see Introduction section).

To complete activity as an inquiry-based project:

1. Write porosity and permeability on the board as vocabulary terms and define each.

• The porosity of a material is a measurement of how much of its volume is open space (also called pore space). Porosity is usually expressed as a percentage of the material's total volume. The permeability is a measurement of how easily liquid flows through a material (or soil).

2. On the chalk/white board, list the following materials that will be available to the students:

• 2 paper cups (1 with a hole and 1 without a hole in the bottom)
• Graduated cylinder
• Large jar
• Soil samples
• Spoon/scraper
• Stopwatch or other timing device

3. Ask students how they think porosity and permeability are related. Ask them how they would set up an experiment to test the porosity of a soil.
4. Ask the students what types of measurements they would need to be able to find the porosity of the soil. (Answer: Lead them towards volume: volume of soil, volume of water.) What measurements would they need for permeability? (Answer: Lead them towards time, volume.)
5. Have students pose different questions about the different soil samples and their porosity or permeability; write these questions on the board. (Example: What would you like to learn about these soil samples?)
6. Have students break into groups and report to their labs stations (or designated lab area).
7. Pass out materials or have students gather materials from a designated area.
8. Instruct student groups to pick or come up with a question that they would like to answer about the porosity or permeability of the soils.
9. Have them record a hypothesis/prediction in their lab notebooks or on a piece of paper.
10. Ask students to record sample number, porosity and permeability in the Data Table on their Porosity and Permeability Worksheet as well as any other measurements they need during this activity.
11. For students that are struggling, ask them to think about how they could use the given materials to measure the volume of water in a soil. Would they use a known volume of soil and water? Porosity is a percentage of pore space. How would you calculate that? etc.
12. Share and discuss findings with the class.
13. Ask students to answer the following questions when they have shared all of their findings with each other.

• Which sample had the greatest porosity?
• Which sample did the water pass through most quickly? That is, which had the highest permeability?
• As an environmental engineer, where would you recommend placing a drinking water well (i.e., in which sample)? (Answer: the sample with greatest porosity)
• As an environmental engineer, which soil sample had the greatest risk of transferring harmful chemicals into a drinking water aquifer? (Answer: sample with greatest permeability)
• What factors would you consider when locating your drinking water well? (Answer: proximity to potential chemical hazards, porosity of soil, permeability of soil, other factors such as pH of soil, depth of aquifer, etc.)

To complete the activity as a traditional lab:

1. Ask students how they think porosity and permeability are related. Ask them how they would set up an experiment to test the porosity of a soil.
2. Pass out Porosity and Permeability Worksheets.
3. Have them record a hypothesis/prediction on their worksheet.
4. Have students break into groups and report to their individual lab stations or designated lab area. Pass out materials or have students gather materials from a designated area.
5. Tell students to follow the steps found below (also duplicated on the Porosity and Permeability Worksheet):

A. Measuring Porosity of Samples

1. Pour 100 mL of water into your cup and draw a line where the water comes up to. Write 100 mL in the total volume column in your Data Table on the Porosity and Permeability Worksheet. Dump out the water.
2. Fill the cup to the marked line with your first soil sample.
3. Using your graduated cylinder, slowly and carefully pour the water into the cup until the water reaches the top of your sample. Write the volume of water remaining in the graduated cylinder in your Data Table.
4. Subtract the volume remaining from the total (original) volume of water in the cup. This is the amount of water you added to your sample. Write the volume of water added to the sample in your Data Table - this is the pore space.
5. To determine the porosity of the sample, divide the pore space volume by the total volume and multiply the result by 100. Write the porosity in your Data Table. (Note: % pore space = pore space / total volume x 100)

B. Measuring Permeability of Samples

1. Hold the empty cup with a hole in it over a jar or an empty cup/container. Carefully pour your sample into the cup with the hole, allowing the water to drain into the jar.
2. Pour 100 mL of water into the cup with your sample. Time how long it takes from when you begin pouring until when the water drains out of the sample. Write this time down in your Data Table.

6. Repeat parts A and B for all other soil samples.
7. Have students complete their Porosity and Permeability Worksheets.

Question/Answer: Lead a general discussion of porosity, permeability and groundwater. Ask students the following questions:

• What is groundwater? (Answer: water underground, that is mostly flowing very slowly through ground soil.)
• What is an aquifer? (Answer: Layer of soil or rock containing water that yields measurable water when pumped.)

Question/Answer: Ask students questions and have them raise their hands to respond. Write answers on the board and discuss as a class.

• What is porosity? (Answer: The measurement of how much pore space is in between different particles of soil.)
• How is porosity calculated? (Answer: by dividing the volume of pore space by the total volume of soil)
• What is permeability? (Answer: Permeability is how easily water flows through soil.)

Porosity and Permeability Worksheet: Have students record measurements in their Data Table and follow along with the activity on their worksheet. After students have finished their worksheet, have them compare answers with their peers. Review their answers to gauge their mastery of the subject.

Prediction Analysis: Have students compare their initial predictions with their test results, as recorded on their worksheet. Ask the students to explain why some soils had a better permeability to water than others.

Problem Solving: As an environmental engineer, which of the following soils would you recommend as the best for placing a drinking water well? (Answer: Soil #3, since it has the highest porosity and fastest permeability. Water flows through soils with high porosity more easily.)

1. Soil with porosity of 30% and permeability of 30 seconds through 100 mL.
2. Soil with porosity of 50% and permeability of 15 seconds through 100 mL.
3. Soil with porosity of 70% and permeability of 5 seconds through 100 mL.

Drawing and Class Discussion: Have students depict their subject area knowledge gained by sketching and labeling some of the concepts or activities. For example,

• Have each group draw or graph their results of different soil porosity and permeability. Compare the groups' results as a class and discuss the validity of each drawing.